The tyranny of metrics

I. The argument

The argument in a nutshell

Recurring flaws

II. The background

The origins of measuring and paying for performance

Why metrics became so popular

Principals, agents, and motivation

Philosophical critiques

III. The mismeasure of all things? : case studies

Colleges and universities

Schools

Medicine

Policing

The military

Business and finance

Philanthropy and foreign aid

Excursus

When transparency is the enemy of performance: politics, diplomacy, intelligence, and marriage

IV. Conclusions

Unintended but predictable negative consequences

When and how to use metrics: a checklist.